Examining the Impact of Training and Nativeness on Teacher’s self-efficacy in teaching English

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of training and 'nativeness' on teacher's self-efficacy in teaching English as a second language. A questionnaire was used and administered to 281 foreign teachers in Nasseria, Iraq. The teacher’s sense of efficacy scale (TSES) was employed to measure a teacher's selfefficacy. Using MANOVA, we tested the impact of teachers’ training and 'nativeness' on a teacher’s selfefficacy. The analysis showed that trained teachers have higher self-efficacy than untrained teachers and further that professional development enhances self-efficacy. The study established that being a native speaker does not necessarily influence a teacher's self-efficacy and goes to support the hypothesis that target language proficiency should not be associated with being a language teacher. Ultimately, policymakers and educational administrators should concentrate on the professional development of language teachers and disband the native/non-native dichotomy.


INTRODUCTION
determining the output of these teachers. Self-efficacy plays a vital part in the teaching and learning process because of its dual role in either helping or hindering the learner's progress (Bandura, 2010). On the part of the teacher, intrinsic confidence determines his/her performance to a considerable extent and influences his/her retention on the job.
On arriving in a new environment such as Iraq, even professional teachers who do not have a grasp of the teaching philosophy of the country are faced with many challenges in the teaching of English as a second language (TEFL). According to Hu (2002) the typical approach to TEFL in Iraq, as part of its culture of learning, has been a combination of the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods, which is mainly characterized by cross-linguistic comparisons and a detailed study of grammar through the memorization of vocabulary and sentence structure with an emphasis on oral and written language and a penchant for literary works. There is a direct contrast with communicative language teaching (CLT), mostly used in English language teaching and learning. In this teaching method, meaning is primary, and teaching should be focused on communicative functions, rather than only linguistic knowledge, and the capacity to use structural patterns (Brown, 2001). The introduction of the communicative CLT approach is considered an alien methodology that is at variance with the traditional teaching method condensed into the 'four R's and four M's' (p. 100). The four R's are reception, repetition, reproduction, and review. The four M's represent memorization, meticulosity, mastery, and mental activeness. In the opinion of Hu (ibid), the significant factors that pose a potential conflict in the application of CLT in the Arabic culture of learning are the embodiment of different and opposing philosophies in teaching and learning. For this reason, foreign teachers' self-efficacy will be necessary for teaching and learning.
There is an emerging argument that target language proficiency should not be associated with nativeness; rather, adequate preparedness through training should be one of the main criteria for assessing the credentials of both native and nonnative teachers (Braine, 2010;Medgyes, 2011). Choi and Lee (2016) suggest further that professional training and target language proficiency are vital requirements for second language teachers and form the sources of teacher's self-confidence. They note that the preferred teacher is one who has both traits, whereas teachers who have insufficient levels of both are least preferred. Notable studies exist in language teacher's proficiency/nativeness (Choi and Lee, 2016;Eslami and Fatahi, 2008), teachers' development (Chiang, 2008) and self-efficacy (Mojavezi and Tamiz, 2012).
While researchers such as Cheung (2008) have carried out similar studies like the present one in the Arabic context, to the best of our knowledge, none of them combines all the variables used in this study. Also, considering that an estimated 80% of language teachers are non-native speakers of English (Braine, 2018), we follow Choi and Lee's (2016) conclusion, and test whether being trained and/or being a native teacher influences self-efficacy in specific areas of teaching such as classroom management, instructional strategies and student engagement (which form the three dimensions of the teacher sense of efficacy scale (TSES)). The study, therefore, presents a two-fold dimension to understanding the effects of English language teachers' self-efficacy as far as Iraq is concerned. Using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), the paper assesses these relationships to establish whether teachers' training and/or nativeness result in higher self-efficacy and better performance.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (Bandura, 2010: 1), is defined as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. To Maddux (2002) self-efficacy is what a person believes he/she can do with his/her abilities and skills under certain conditions. Teacher self-efficacy may be explained as teachers' personal beliefs in their ability to carry out activities through adequate planning, and organizing, to attain set educational goals (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2010). It is also about how teachers utilize their competence and professional discipline to influence students' behavior, knowledge and values (Tschannen-Moran and Hoy, 2001). It depicts what teachers can do in a particular situation, not what they have accomplished or why it was accomplished in the past (Hoy, 2004). The self-efficacy of teachers involves the choice of activities, effort, and persistence. People with minimal self-efficacy are unlikely to engage in challenging tasks, whereas individuals with a high sense of self-efficacy are more persistent and enduring even when they face difficulties.
'Teachers' self-efficacy' was developed out of the work of the Research and Development (RAND) corporation with a focus on the degree to which teachers believed in whether their ability to take charge of reinforcement was within their remit or in that of the environment (Rotter, 1966). Student motivation and performance were presumed to be significant reinforcers for teaching behaviors. The expectation, in the view of the RAND researchers, is that high levels of teachers' self-efficacy could strongly influence students' motivation and achievement. A second view of the theory emerged as a result of the research of Bandura (1977). In his view, teachers' self-efficacy is a cognitive process in which individuals build self-beliefs about their ability to accomplish a task within acceptable limits. This sense of self-believe controls the amount of energy expended as well as the endurance and persistence required to face and overcome challenges. These two views of the theory form the underpinnings of teachers' selfefficacy but undoubtedly create gaps related to the clarity of the theory. Some of these issues border on whether teachers' self-efficacy is a one size fits all or whether it is specific to certain conditions and whether the theory needs refinement to capture other vital areas of assessment (Jassim,2018). Teachers' self-efficacy is also related to classroom organization, levels of persistence on a task, instructional strategies, questioning techniques, innovation, degree of risk-taking, management of students' on-task time, and teacher feedback to students (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). The TSES concentrates on classroom management, student engagement activities, and instructional strategies as the three cardinal areas of teacher's self-efficacy.
Hoy and Weinstein (2015) describe classroom management as an overarching term comprising the creation of a productive, orderly learning environment to influence students' behavioral changes and guide them to accomplish their objectives. Recent studies and theoretical developments describe classroom management along two continuums: structure versus chaos, and autonomy support versus control (Jang et al., 2010). Furthermore, many novice teachers believe that managing their classroom is a prerequisite to teaching content (Cochran-Smith and Villegas, 2016); nonetheless, studies have demonstrated that novice teachers have weaker classroom climates than experienced teachers. Gibson and Dembo (1984) suggest that teachers' perceptions of their competence influence their choice of classroom management strategies. Teachers with higher perceptions of self-efficacy are highly effective in using classroom management skills (Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2004). Such teachers tend to have classrooms that are better planned, more organized, student-centered, accommodating, and amenable to new ideas (Anthony and Kritsonis, 2007), while teachers with less classroom management skills tend to have classrooms characterized by aggression (Shernoff and Kratochwill, 2007). Henson (2001) finds that teachers who are more practical use enhanced classroom management approaches while Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) report that a teacher's self-efficacy determines his/her inclination to work with students with difficulties instead of referring them to special education programs. Similarly, Landrum and Kauffman (2015) and Landau (2009) consider the use of rewards and punishment in managing classrooms. They intimate that teachers' main reason for adopting such an approach is to ensure their efficiency since it is an easy way of managing a student's misbehavior, giving teachers a feeling of control.
Four sources of self-efficacy are proposed by Bandura (2010). These are mastery, vicarious experiences, physiological disposition, and social persuasion. Among these sources, mastery is identified as the most common and direct source of self-efficacy according to Goddard et al. (2004). Behavior, personal and environmental factors influence self-efficacy (Bandura, 2010). Mastery experience continuously dominates as a strong force in nurturing teachers' self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Engaging students in classroom lessons is a measure of mastery experience. Therefore, there is a marked reinforcement of teachers' self-efficacy when they observe that students are involved in in-class activities. When students have low interest or are not engaged, teachers' responsibilities increase (Ross, Cousins, & Gadalla, 1996), which goes to undermine their sense of efficacy.
Self-efficacy is specific to each situation and is applied differently among individuals. Teachers' self-efficacy in a classroom may vary according to the subject taught and the grade of the students. Individuals differ in how they nurture their self-efficacy and in the intensity to which they develop it within their area of specialty (Bandura, 2010). For example, a teacher could have high self-efficacy in classroom management but low self-efficacy in student engagement activities. Therefore, the existence of a multi-purpose measure of perceived self-efficacy is a mirage. According to Bandura (1977), the 'onesize-fits-all' method usually has incomplete predictive and explanatory values because the items in an allpurpose test may have little or no bearing on the task. Moreover, to serve all needs, generalized scales ordinarily neglect an individual's specific demands and situations, leading to ambiguity in measurement.
The predisposition of teachers, influenced by, for example, their prior preparation, physical and emotional condition, and external factors such as the setting and demeanor of colleagues, contribute to the level of self-efficacy (Schnuck et al., 2014). Teachers' traits such as gender, grade, level taught, and experience also play a significant role in determining their self-efficacy (Berger et al., 2018). Generally, the ability to succeed raises teachers' self-efficacy, while failure decreases it.
International Journal on Integrated Education e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | Two major scopes of teachers' perceived efficacy (TES) are discussed in the literature: General Teaching Efficacy (GTE) and Personal Teaching Efficacy (PTE) (Tschannen-Moran and Hoy, 2001). PTE signifies a teacher's belief about his/her ability to make a change in a students' performance, while GTE encompasses the teachers' beliefs about the influence of external factors and the teacher's ability to affect the performance of students. Conceptual questions have been raised especially about the GTE, which focuses more on teachers' ability to affect outcomes and noted as a measure of locus of control (Rotter, 1966), a justification for its inaccurate measurement of self-efficacy (Faez and Karas, 2017). The development of what is currently known as the teacher's sense of efficacy scale (TSES) has improved the methodological concerns in the TES (Wyatt, 2014).
According to Wheatley (2002), doubt and uncertainty are sometimes beneficial to a person's selfefficacy. The foundation of Wheatley's challenge to Bandura's (1997) idea is that self-efficacy doubts are a necessary part of teachers' learning and improvement processes. This uncertainty could emanate from a test on teachers' beliefs about their current tasks. To mitigate the impact of teacher's self-efficacy doubts, Wheatley (2002) proposes follow-up coaching.

Teacher training
Trained teachers are thought to possess technical competence and to conform to requirements of external authority, which specialist expertise is acquired through lengthy education and training. Under sophisticated professional education, teachers are well qualified to exercise a higher understanding of the nature of learning and pedagogy in meeting the particular and local needs of individual children in particular educational circumstances (ibid). Those in the profession are guided by ethics and teaching standards, which are self-monitoring mechanisms (Darling-Hammond and Sykes, 1999).
Training is considered a critical criterion in selecting candidates for jobs because of the perception that their expert training is sufficient to enhance their job performance. Tschannen-Moran, Parish, and DiPaola (2006) establish that a teacher's professionalism correlated positively with students' achievement. Among experienced teachers, there is a constancy of self-efficacy beliefs, even with the introduction of new teaching methods (Ross, 1994). Teachers who implement new methods after training experience an increase in their general teaching efficacy and a feeling of greater responsibility both for positive and negative student learning habits, as well as experiencing more positive feelings towards teaching (Guskey, 1984). A study by (Posnanski, 2002) finds that teachers trained in new methods of teaching science made significant gains in personal teaching self-efficacy similar to other experiments where the acquisition of professional knowledge, training, and coaching in teaching, gave teachers an added advantage ( The definition of teacher training in this study is the formal education and technical training received by an individual to teach based on a well-defined curriculum for a lengthy period and has acquired a recognized certificate to teach a specific subject and level. For this reason, we do not consider only TESOL/TEFL/TESL certificates as teaching certificates because of the option of online methods that are not accompanied by supervised practical training.

Native and non-native language speakers
The main criterion for describing a person as a native speaker takes into cognizance the circumstances of acquisition; thus, a native speaker is perceived as someone who acquires a language at childhood (Davies, 2003). Native language represents the language a person acquires in early childhood because it is spoken in the family and/or it is the language of the country where he or she is living (Richard, 1985: 241). This means that it is possible to be a native speaker of two or more languages if they were acquired early in childhood.
Brutt-Griffler and Samimy (2001) think that 'nativeness' is a social construct rather than a linguistic category. The description of English speakers as 'native' or 'non-native' speakers hinges upon several social considerations, such as the notions of what and how a native speaker should look or sound like (ibid). To Mesthrie and Bhatt (2008: 36), the distinction between a native and nonnative speaker of English --long taken for granted in linguistics --is being increasingly called into question in World English research.
Parental guidance affects language development for native speakers, as language learning begins through engagement with caregivers and parents (National Research Council, 1998). According to Gass and Selinker (2010), being exposed to a language through language input and instruction and socialization with, for instance, English-speaking peers helps in the development of the language (Jia and Aaronson, e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | 2003). This category of speakers, according to Kachru (1997), comprises speakers who usually set the standards for English-language proficiency, particularly those from countries where English is the native language for the majority of the people, such as the US and the UK. Following from this, Kachru proposes three descriptions of English speakers around the world. The countries which recognize English as a native language are referred to as the Inner Circle (e.g., Canada, Britain, Australia, Ireland, North America), the Outer Circle treat English as a second language or an official language (e.g., India, Malaysia, Ghana, South Africa, Philippines) and the Expanding Circle are the countries which accept English as a foreign language (e.g., Iraq, Japan, Republic of Korea, Russia). Based on this classification, citizens of countries belonging to the outer and expanding circles are non-native speakers.
Non-native speakers either speak or learn English as a second language (e.g., The Netherlands) or as a foreign language (e.g., Iraq) (Kachru, 1997). A non-native speaker does not have the opportunity to develop through the initial processes of native speakers. It has been claimed that non-native English speaking teachers (NNESTs) face problems in terms of a lack of confidence and the biased attitude of students (Reis and Johnson, 2010) even though they are the majority of the English language teachers. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) insist that foreign language teachers should be able to hear, understand, speak, read, and write in the target language with a minimum level of proficiency, either advanced or higher (Omaggio & Higgs, 1984). The command of a language is a mark of a good teacher. Teaching qualifications, exposure to native speakers, and having lived in an English-speaking country all affect teachers' knowledge of, and self-image regarding the language; the higher the NNEST's proficiency in English, the more confident they become (Reves and Medgyes, 1994).
The goal of learning English varies in every country. In Venezuela, it is used primarily for communicative purposes, whereas in Iraq, it is for business communication in particular. In Venezuela, upon graduation, EFL teachers are hired to teach in high schools without having to pass an exam that shows their English competency; administrators do not require teachers to obtain additional certification to teach English (Chacón, 2005). Venezuela, for example, places a heavy emphasis on descriptive linguistics. Thus, the study of the language at the sentence level (Brutt-Griffler and Samimy, 1999) overlooks the social nature of language as a means of communication and interaction. Generally, teachers in Venezuela may not acquire the communicative competence to perform in the four primary language skills, namely writing, reading, listening and speaking. Without this competency, teachers find themselves unable to use communicative language teaching (CLT) in their English classes (Li, 1998) as they do not consider themselves competent in English, and tend to have a low sense of self-efficacy. In Hong Kong, it was realized that NNESTs were influential in pedagogy, but were found to be weak linguistically. NESTs, on the other hand, had a perceived strength in linguistics but had pedagogical weaknesses (Ma, 2012).
Inadequate knowledge of the language can influence the self-esteem and professional status of the teacher and interfere with simple teaching procedures. Perceived language proficiency is of concern to NNESTs and has an impact on their professional self-esteem and confidence (Brutt-Griffler and Samimy, 1999). In Iran, the implementation of CLT requires EFL teachers to be competent in the English language to teach it. It is expected that EFL teachers use English with functional ability in communicating across language skills (Eslami and Fatahi, 2008). Research points to perceived language proficiency as an essential factor for NNEST since it impacts their professional confidence and self-esteem (Brutt-Griffler and Samimy, 1999).
In concluding this section, we take the definition of the words 'native' and 'non-native,' mostly from Kachru (1997). Native English speakers are considered mainly as those who have English as their first and mother tongue and are recognized as such. Non-native speakers are those who have another language as their mother tongue or L1 and have studied English as a second or foreign language and sometimes adopt it as an official language. Based on the foregoing, we hypothesize that: Security automation is also able to determine whether or not to take action in response to something that has happened and they may also be able to resolve and contain the issues. This could be happening in a matter of seconds without the requirement of action taken by the staff. Security automation is mostly used by the IT companies for IT departments of a company where security automation, time-consuming and repetitive activities are to be taken away from the hands of analysts security so they will be able to focus more on the value-adding and important parts of work. In addition to the following, security automation is also able to provide credit action which is rapid. According to research made by the ESG, IT teams have been ignoring 74% of the security alerts for events even though they have the proper solutions to security in place just because of the body of work. Security automation can not only be detecting and resolving common issues they are also able to eliminate human error which comes from work overload, negligence and inexperience. According to writer Aaron Hand, the terms e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | security and safety are similar but not the same. Safety of the processes along with cybersecurity is deeply intertwined, having one type of accident easily infiltrating into the workings of another. There has been widening prosperity that has been combining with that of the proliferation of sensors along with extensive connectivity through clouds which have accelerated the pace in which change takes place in systems of a factory along with their equipment. The ways by which factories are operating is really changing fast given the face of potent technological and economic forces. The government is concerned about that of dangerous and disrupted cybersecurity attacks that have been made on the plan along with the critical operations of infrastructure which are already collaborating with that of manufacturers along with the industrial operators. There are three sectors which have garnered the highest responses and they are for energy, critical manufacturing, wastewater and water. There are specific measures for mitigation of risk which organisations can be implementing and they will be depending on the unique set of risks security along with their potential impacts on that of safety. Every plant has to be segmented into zones which are a core security practice falling under the best practices. This can be used by every plant to be a part of their holistic defence-in-depth security approach so as to be able to help limit the access to systems of safety [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12].
There is an industrial demilitarized zone also known as the IDMZ firewalls along with data brokers that may security segment the network plantwide from that of the network of the enterprise. There may also be used virtual LANs, also known as the VLAN along with a layer-3 and layer-2 for the hierarchy of switches so that they can create a functional sub-zone to be able to establish a smaller domain for the sake of simplifying security policy enforcement and for trust [10]. There are many organisations that are using RFID cards so that they are able to manage access controls to the same facility. However, the physical access of the security should be going further than this so as to be able to protect systems for safety. Block-out and lock-in devices can be utilised so as to be preventing the removal of cables which are unauthorised and so that they are able to close any unnecessary or unused ports. There is more advanced security for physical access that is coming up, such as that of the IP video surveillance system which may be using analytics so that faces are more recognisable.
There are ways of working together for devices incorporating CIP security CIP safety that may be helpful while protecting against the corruption of data along with attacks which are malicious on that of systems of safety. Companies are thinking about the usage of safety systems along with other hardware that should include security features that come built-in with it [8]. As an example it can be stated that safety controllers which use keep software may be able to ensure that firmware is downloaded only from a source that is trusted while the access door may be able to restrict physical access to that of the controller. A managed switch which is Industrial having list of access control or ACL may also be sure that devices which are authorised along with traffic and users are able to access a certain network. There are features of security software which will be able to restrict wireless and wired accesses to that of the infrastructure of a network. Companies are using authorisation and authentication security which is a primary element in the interface software connecting human to machines and they can limit the access to safety systems to that of individuals who are only authorised [10][11][12][13][14].
This is something which can help for the protection against that of accidental and malicious threats which occur internally. The companies hire security personnel who will be able to define who may be able to access a particular software and what kind of actions they will be able to perform and on which hardware specifically along with from where they will be able to perform these actions [6]. Management of assets and their software can be automated along with the discovery of acids that and you so that they are able to trap centrally and manage the changes of configuration across that of the entire facility which includes inside the systems of safety. These softwares are able to detect changes that are malicious in nature in real-time and they are able to log the activities along with reporting them to that of key personnel. This process includes having machinery in place so be able to immediately review the advisories and to determine the future impact. This may also include the implementation of procedures of patch management for that of effective products. Leveraging of automation may be able to contribute to that of orderly production in an environment and they can also secure the path of least resistance that of Engineers.
The above is believed by that of writer Patrick O'Doherty. The environment of production have become increasingly more complex and it is increasingly more difficult for that of a typical team of e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | security to be able to safeguard everything manually [4]. The teams of security a struggling to be able to keep pace by using best practices which are old where is automation is seen as a key lever which may be able to enable the same teams to be performing their work efficaciously at scale. There is a growth in the ecosystem consisting of powerful tools that are built to be taking advantage of that of comprehensive APIs that is offered by providers of the cloud. This kind of automation makes it feasible to build solutions that are highly secure while ensuring that the team is able to move fast. From the top of a security aspect, automation are able to provide the two main benefits which are least-privilege isolation and reproducibility. The task which is automated can generate reproducible and identical results and that is very important since they create orderly and homogeneous production environment that can be significantly easier to be able to secure and manage. So as to be able to not spend a lot of time giving special attention and care to every one of the servers one can be working with the same treating them to be a line-up of easily replaceable and disposable entities where any particular server is not utmost essential. There are some companies which have started provisioning manually along with the configuration of servers [2]. This is however lesser than the ideal since it can create constant risks of producing misconfigurations and inconsistencies through that of manual error. This is something that can be sounding not very serious at times however misconfigurations are tye reason why security incidents take place and these have been ranked as 6th on that of the 2017 OWASP list consisting of the 10 main applications that pose a security risk [9]. By the appropriate application of automation, one may be able to control the future sources of noise adequately as well as simultaneously evaluate risks of security along with minimisation of potential incidents that are caused by the updates which are not applied uniformly. Here are other benefits of automation as well such as the isolation of agents being made easier for that of executing tasks and using something that is known to be the principle of least privilege.
Clinging to the given context, there can be agents who may be anything from that of an engineer on the team to that of services of third-party software such as that of GitHub. One may also be the program which has been created so as to perform specific tasks [1]. The principle of that of least privilege can state that each of the agents should only be granted the minimum permissions sets that are required for the performance of their respective tasks. This is something which will not be feeling very familiar in the beginning however the applications are utmost commonplace in that of real life [5]. As an example, it can be said that it is highly unlikely that all employees within a company have been authorised so that they are able to be making wire transfers from that of the bank accounts of the company having a reason that is very sound. This approach has to be applied properly otherwise it can reduce any potential fallout as an agent is executed or compromised maliciously [7]. The reason behind the same being that attackers may have a personal scope for that of mischief which is curtailed by that of strict permissions to be granted to that of an agent who has compromised.
By that of appropriate isolation of agents, one can make it very difficult for that of an attacker who has compromised a production component from its environment which can be pivoting to a position that is more powerful where they will be able to gain either sensitive permissions or the access to that of a data set that is protected. A successful example is a company having manual processes for being able to provide the additional capacity of servers on that of the EC2 lying ahead which deploys new services along with that of automation which will be helpful for a change [3]. There are many cloud providers which offer sets of utilities of commands line that will be able to enable one to be performing actions by using the APIs from local terminals.

H1:
Professional teachers have higher self-efficacy than non-professional teachers.

H1:
Native English-speaking teachers have higher self-efficacy than non-native English teachers.

Participants
The population for the study is foreigners in Iraq, with the sample being foreign English language teachers in kindergartens and training schools living in Nasseria. The participants are people who have taught or teach English in public and private kindergartens and English language training International Journal on Integrated Education e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | schools. The recruitment of the study group was first through contacts with training schools and convenience sampling. An online questionnaire was distributed to principals of training schools contacted as well as general and known teachers' social media platforms, with specific guidelines on the target groups. In all, two hundred and eighty-one (281) responses were obtained out of an expected number of 400, representing a response rate of 61.8%. The variables were measured using self-reported assessments.
The study adopted and modified the 12 item Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) proposed by Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) which is used not only for general teachers but also for language teachers (Chacón, 2005;Eslami & Fatahi, 2008;Swanson, 2012). Although other self-efficacy scales exist specifically for language teachers such as the Second/Foreign Language Teacher Efficacy Scale (S/FLTES) developed and used by Swanson (2012;2010), the S/FLTES is still new and needs further development and testing on a more extensive and diverse S/FL teaching population. The TSES was considered appropriate because of the aspects of teaching that it measures as well as its extensive use and validity. Bandura (2006) makes the point that self-efficacy scales should measure what they purport to measure and should also have both discriminative and predictive validity. Hence the reason for the modification. Statement such as 'I am able to calm down a student who is noisy and disruptive in my English class' (classroom management), 'I can motivate students who show low interest in learning English'(student engagement) and 'I can use a variety of assessment strategies in my English class' (instructional strategies). Respondents were required to indicate their level of agreement to each statement from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
The measurement of teacher training was through answers to a self reported assessment such as 'Have you gone through formal teacher training?' which required a simple 'yes' or 'no' answer. Formal teacher training means being trained for not less than one year in instructional and methodological approaches to teaching based on an accepted training curriculum of a specific country. This does not necessarily mean being trained only to teach a language but could include other subjects while excluding online TESOL/TEFL training.
Similarly, 'nativeness' is measured by answering 'yes' or 'no' to the question, 'Is English the first language or mother tongue (L1) of your country?'. In response to this question, respondents were expected to indicate whether they were born and bred in a native English-speaking country and/or have English as a first language (L1). This shows whether English is their native language or not based on the operational definition.

Reliability and internal consistency
Following Jassim & Dzakiria (2019). to test the reliability of the TSES, Cronbach's alpha (α) values were used. Table 1 provides an overview of the reliability level emerging from Cronbach's alpha statistics. Each of the TSES dimensions (instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement activities) showed a high level of reliability and internal consistency based on an acceptable standard of α < 0.70. An examination for the item-total statistics table indicates that none of the variables examined obtained values < 0.30.

4.ANALYSIS
We used MANOVA in determining whether individuals who are native English speakers have higher levels of self-efficacy in teaching English, as well as whether individuals trained as teachers also have high levels of self-efficacy. MANOVA measures several dependent variables (DVs) in a single experiment, with a better chance of discovering which factor is significant. It also protects against Type I errors that can occur in the conduct of independent multiple ANOVAs and reveals differences that ANOVA tests are unable to discover.
The descriptive statistic in Table 2 shows that a higher number of male respondents (62.6%) than females were engaged in teaching jobs in Nasseria Iraq. Among this group of respondents, most (63.4%) were 25-34 years old, while people aged 55 years or more represented only 2%. There was a significance e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | in the difference between people who were trained teachers and those who were untrained (57.6% and 42.4%, respectively). Individuals with teaching experience ranged from less than five years (50.5%) to more than 20 years (3.6%). Individuals with training in TEFL represented 76.9%, most of whom were native English speakers (59.1%). Foreign teachers had been engaged from less than six months to over five years, with the majority having worked for between one and five years (40.9%).

N=281
In Table 3, we show the correlation between the variables of interest. Except for nativeness and student engagement activities that did not show any significance, all other variables were significant. The level of correlation does not pose any collinearity problem.  The descriptive statistics presented in Table 4 contain the overall and group means, standard deviations, and the results for each independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV). The Table shows a higher mean score for trained teachers who are native speakers in classroom management (29.11) and a mean score of 29.46 in instructional strategies for teachers who are neither untrained nor native speakers. Note: N=276.
A homogeneity test using Box's M-test of equality of covariance matrices showed a p-value of 0.03, which means significant differences exist among the independent variables (IV) in the covariance matrices. This is against the assumption of MANOVA, but the sample size and the equal values of each observation could explain the discrepancy. Since there is a violation of this assumption, we used Pillai's Trace for the multivariate test (Olson, 1976). We, therefore, controlled for age, gender, and education to test the effect of the IVs on the DVs. Table 5 shows the multivariate test results, indicating significant relations between the trained teachers and the IV (F = 5.17***, observed power = 95.9%) as well as the DV and the IV (F = 1.45, observed power = 51.2%). This shows that nativeness did not influence selfefficacy. Note: *** indicates significance at p< 0.01; ** indicates significance at p< 0.05 Using the tests of between-subject effects ( Table 6) to confirm the hypotheses by checking the individual effect of the IV on the DV, we noted that there was a positive relationship between trained teachers and instructional strategies (F = 8.92, p < 0. 01, partial η2 = 0.032, power to detect the effect = 90.9%). Classroom management was also positively influenced by training (F = 6.79, p < 0.05, partial η2 e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | = 0.025, power to detect the effect = 83%.). There was a statistical significance in the relationship between trained teachers and student engagement activities (F = 14.52, p < 0.01, partial η2 = 0.051, power to detect the effect = 98.4%). Based on these findings, the combined effect as shown in table 5 supports H1. The second IV (nativeness) did not produce any statistical significance in its relationship with the three dimensions of self-efficacy. For this reason, we conclude that H2 is not supported.

DISCUSSION
Trained foreign teachers come to Iraq, mostly with their teaching certificates, and become the preferred candidates for employment opportunities. The perception is that they have the required knowledge and training to teach. In other words, they have better teaching skills and understand both child psychology and teaching methodologies based on teacher training modules. For this reason, one of the requirements for the issuance of a work permit or a work visa for a teaching job is that the applicant should have a teaching certificate (Zheng and Zhang, 2014). According to Bandura (1997), one of the keys to developing high levels of self-efficacy is personal mastery experiences that offer reliable proof of the extent to which an individual understands the requirements for mastering the dynamics of a task. An individual's training or experience in performing a task determines mastery of the job.
From the results, trained teachers have higher levels of self-efficacy than untrained teachers since the coefficients are positive, as shown in Table 6. This finding, therefore, confirms earlier studies that have established that trained teachers have higher levels of self-efficacy than and novice teachers e-ISSN : 2620 3502 p-ISSN : 2615 3785 Volume 3, Issue VIII, August 2020 | (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). It also supports Bandura's (1997) assertion that personal mastery experience accounts for increased self-efficacy. Mastery experience in this instance can also be attained through training, while vicarious experience is the outcome of observation which can be achieved even by watching teaching videos online and have been shown to affect the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers (Karsenti & Collin, 2011). According to Tschannen-Moran & McMaster (2009), follow-up coaching promotes mastery experience which influences higher self-efficacy for implementing new strategies. It is no surprise therefore that trained or professional teachers have a higher self-efficacy and an advantage over untrained teachers. Tschannen-Moran et al. (2006) found that a professional teacher's self-efficacy correlates with students performance.
In preparing teachers to teach, guidelines have been developed by TESOL (2010, cited in Tran, 2015) in consultation with the Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) in the United States. The following areas are of concern: language, culture, planning, implementation, managing instruction, assessment and professionalism. Based on extensive studies (Drago-severson, 2002), seven main professional development models are used for teachers generally. These are observation, study groups, mentoring, providing individual guidance, in-service training, improvement process, and action research/inquiry. These added training models could make the difference between trained and untrained teachers. This is confirmed by various studies that have established a positive relationship between professional training, teachers self-efficacy and performance (Kraut et al., 2016).
Our study shows there is no difference in the level of self-efficacy among native and non-native English teachers in the three TSES examined. In Korea, Choi and Lee (2016) find that teachers with minimum proficiency were highly unlikely to increase their English use in the classrooms even with high self-efficacy. Also, with low self-efficacy and high proficiency, English will not be taught to a desirable level. In addition, in TEFL, Chacón (2005) and Eslami and Fatahi (2008) confirm that the self-efficacy of teachers varied based on tasks and teaching expectations as well as teachers' self-assessment of their language proficiency. In this study, one of the reasons for this trend is that NNESTs could utilize the teaching methods they were taught with in addition to their perception of the best language-teaching method. Medgye (2011) calls it learner models while Ehrman, Wenden, and Rubin (1990) call it language learning strategies. This makes NNEST have superiority over NEST in most cases. Also, as revealed by Brutt-Griffler and Samimy (1999), although NNESTs face prejudice, resulting in them losing confidence in teaching, they could combine the various teaching methods within their reach to enhance their selfefficacy and performance. In the study by Reves and Medgyes (1994), NNESTs showed 'deeper insights into the English language' (p. 361) and seemed more qualified than NESTs. They showed more responsiveness towards their students and could predict the difficulties faced by their students. This adds to the argument that target language proficiency should not be associated with nativeness and that nativeness does not necessarily imply that teaching a language is the preserve of native speakers. An optimal approach would be to blend NEST with NNEST in order to provide a suitable situation and allow for one group to make up for and plug the weaknesses of the other (see Medgyes, 2011). This finding will be especially interesting to school administrators and policymakers.
There is also a high preference for teachers of a particular race and nationality among schools and English training institutions. This confirms the incidence of discrimination in the recruitment of especially foreign teachers, and even some Arabic NEST (Shao, 2005). This preference is linked to many factors, among which is the ultimate power of parents who drive the market and fuel the perception that people from originally English-speaking countries have better exposure and ability to teach the language than those not considered as originating from such countries (Farrell, 2018). Since this perception is not always true, the bases of such preference could be other reasons rather than performance. Evidence from various countries provides different findings on whether language proficiency levels have a negative or positive effect on teachers' self-efficacy in teaching English. While others indicate NESTs' strength in linguistic abilities, NNESTs have strength in pedagogy. In the view of the ACTFL, a foreign language teacher should have adequate competence in the hearing, understanding, speaking, reading, and writing of what is being taught (Omaggio & Higgs, 1984) which are the considered strengths of a NEST. McLaughlin (1987) argues that the monitor function does not interfere with oral production while knowing and applying the rules underlying language structure helps pupils to perform better, even if they are slowed down and even if this improvement may not show up immediately. In support of our findings too, Medgye (1992) notes that school administrators in France and England do not use nativeness as a basis for recruiting teachers. As this study has shown, among the population studied, there is no difference in the self-efficacy of NEST and NNEST in the teacher efficacy areas examined.

CONCLUSION
Teacher self-efficacy remains a vastly studied theory with great importance. The reason being that teachers with high self-efficacy impact students' performance across several contexts and disciplines. This study thus attempted to explain the influence of personal characteristics and its influence on self-efficacy. It is worth noting that professionally trained and untrained teachers will continue to be engaged in teaching English in Iraq, as will native and non-native English speakers because of the severe shortage of language teachers. The present study indicates that professionally trained teachers have a significant advantage in TEFL in Iraq, confirming many studies on professional training and self-efficacy. This supports the view that specific personal characteristics can influence self-efficacy. In this case, professional training is a determinant of teacher's self-efficacy in TEFL among the study group. It was also noted that there is no difference in teacher's self-efficacy when language proficiency is used as a determinant. This means that NEST and NNEST have the same level of self-efficacy in the three selfefficacy dimensions examined. In making teachers more effective in their tasks, schools should incorporate in-service training and coaching for teachers to increase their levels of self-efficacy as well as their performance. The preference for NEST should be discouraged since no study has found a superior performance among this group. Other factors such as declarative and procedural knowledge other than nativeness, contribute to a prolific teacher of English (Pasternak and Bailey, 2004).
These findings provide evidence to support the theoretical propositions by Pasternak and Bailey (2004) that being prepared pedagogically and linguistically are important and should be the main considerations in comprehending the professional status, growth, and practices of English teachers. Therefore, our findings demonstrate how each characteristic provides a theoretical understanding of the TESOL profession and is a field of study worth considering in further detail. In this sense, the two teacher characteristics should be treated separately and not as interchangeable constructs as done in previous research (Swanson, 2012). These personal features have been shown to be distinct and to have varied influences on individuals.
To ensure effective English language teaching, policymakers could amend the rules for language teachers and the acquisition of work permits for foreign teachers. By making the requirements flexible, the government could monitor and ensure that teachers who have work permits obtain the required certification within a specified period. The government could also identify and provide appropriate training while making use of Arabic support staff. Arabic-trained English teachers should be utilized extensively to fill existing vacancies even though studies have shown that schools and parents prefer foreign teachers to local Arabic teachers (see Shao, 2005